Ma peya two obalo two ma romo bilion 3 onyo makato, yat ni okonyo me gero lobo Amerika ma dongo. Me dwoko deyo gi ma gu rwenyo, omyera wa jolo ki yubu ginacweya.
I kare mo i mwaka 1989, Herbert Darling onongo lwongo: Ladwar mo owace ni en orwatte ki yat mabor ma ki lwongo ni American chestnut i ngom pa Darling i Zor Valley i western New York. Darling onongo ngeyo ni yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts onwongo obedo yat acel ma pire tek i kabedo ni. En bene onongo ngeyo ni kwidi mo ma neko dano onongo cok neko ler magi woko pi mwaki makato miya acel ki nucu. I kare ma en owinyo lok pa ladwar ni ma en oneno ler ma kwo, yat ni onwongo tye futi aryo ki oo i ot ma tye ki rwom abic, en obedo ki akalakala i kome. "pe atwero waco ka atamo ni en ngeyo ngo ma tye," Darling owaco.
I kare ma Darling onongo yat meno, onongo tye calo tye ka neno cal mo me carolok. En owaco ni: "Onwongo yot ki ber me yubu gin ma ki nyutu-onwongo ber atika." Ento Darling bene oneno ni yat ni tye ka to woko. Nicakke i acakki me mwaka 1900, two man opoto i kome, ma kibyeko ni oneko dano bilion 3 nyo makato ki two ma kit meno. Man aye two ma dano okelo mukwongo ma balo yadi i tekwaro me kare ni. Darling otamo ni, ka en pe twero gwoko yat meno, en onongo twero gwoko nyig yat meno. Peko tye acel keken: yat ni pe tye ka timo gin mo pien yat mukene ma ki lwongo ni chestnut pe tye cok ma twero miyo nyig yat ni.
Darling obedo ladiro ma tiyo ki diro pa ladiro me cobo peko. I dwe me abicel ma lubo, ma ature ma yellow opoto i kom yat ma ryangi ne rom ki lum, Darling opong ki jami lweny ma ki lwongo ni shot powder, ma ki kwanyo ki i kom ature ma lacoo me yat mukene ma en opwonyo, ki ocito tung kumalo. Otero cawa acel ki nucu. En obolo yat ni ki i dege ma en opango. (En tye ka doro kampuni me gedo ma tye ka wot maber ma twero wilo jami mapol.) Tute man pe otiyo. I mwaka ma lubo, Darling otemo doki. I kare ni, en ki wode gu tingo gin ma ki lwongo ni scaffolding nio wa i kom yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts ma tye i wi got ki gu gero ot mabor ma romo futi 80 i cabit ma kato aryo. Larema oito malo i wi yat ki oruko ature ki ature ma nen calo twol i kom yat mukene ma ki lwongo ni chestnut.
I kare me kac meno, jang yat pa Darling onywako buru ma opong ki lum ma ryangi ne rom ki lum. Kuto magi onongo pek dok bit adada ma onongo kitwero tamo ni gitye cacti. Kac ni pe dwong, tye nyig 100, ento Darling opito mogo ki oketo gen. En ki lareme bene gu lok ki Charles Maynard ki William Powell, ludiro aryo ma kwano kom yadi i State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry i Syracuse (Chuck ki Bill guto). Cokcok ni gu cako yub me yenyo ngec i kom yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma wel cente ne nok kunnu. Darling omiyo bot gi nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts ki openyo ludiro me cayan ka romo tic kwede me dwoko gi cen. Darling owaco ni: "Man nen calo obedo gin maber atika." "Tung kumalo me lobo Amerika weny." Ento, i nge mwaki manok, yat mege oto woko.
Cake ma jo me lobo Ulaya gucako bedo i North America, lok ma mako yadi ma i lobo meno obedo gin ma ki rwenyo. Ento, tam pa Darling dong dano mapol gineno ni obedo kare maber me cako loko lok man - i acaki me mwaka ni, Templeton World Charity Foundation oketo Maynard ki Powell's The project omiiyo pol kare me tekwaro ne, ki yub man oweko ki turo tic matidi ma wel ne kato $3 million. En aye obedo mic madit loyo ma kimiyo bot univaciti. Kwedo ngec pa ludiro ma kwano kom dano miyo dano ma gi gwoko kwo pa dano me neno anyim i yoo manyen ki ma pol kare pe yomo cwiny, ni yubu lobo ma kicweyo pe nyutu dwogo cen i poto me Eden. Ento, twero bedo ni omyero wa jolo tic ma wamoko: ladiro me jami weng medo ki ginacweya.
Pot yat ma ki lwongo ni Chestnut bor ki tye ki lak, ki nen calo yat ma ki lwongo ni saw blades ma ryangi ne rom ki pot yat ni. I agiki acel, pot yat aryo gikubbe i kom yat. I agiki mukene, gi yubu dul ma bit, ma pol kare gi guro tung cinge. Kit ma onongo pe ki tamo ni nen kwede ni okato i kin lum ma ling ki lum ma tye i kin lum, ki tam pa luring ayela okelo tam pa dano, ma poyo wigi i kom wot gi i kin lum ma onongo tye ki yadi mapol matek.
Ki i kwan ki tam keken aye wa twero niang yadi magi maber. Lucille Griffin, ladit ma loyo dul ma ki lwongo ni American Chestnut Collaborator Foundation, ocoyo ni kany ibi neno nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma dwong ma i kare me cwir, ature ma nen maber i kom yat ni "ma calo yamo ma mol ki i wi got", ma kelo tam pa kwaro. I kare me kac, yat ni obi poto odoco, i kare ni ki buru ma opong ki jami ma mit. "I kare ma nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts ni ocek, an aketo nucu bushel i kare me ngiico," Thoreau ma lamar ocoyo i "Walden." "I kare meno, onwongo obedo gin ma yomo cwinya me wot i kin lum ma pe gik i Lincoln i kare meno."
Nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni Chestnuts ber tutwal. Ma pe rom ki yadi ma ki lwongo ni oak ma gi cwalo nyige i mwaka manok, yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnut gi nywalo nyig yat mapol i kare me kac. Nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni Chestnuts bene yot me camo: itwero kwanyo del kome ki icamo ma pe ki camo. (Tem tic ki nyig yat ma tye ki tannins madwong-onyo pi itim.) Dano weny gi camo nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts: deer, squirrel, bear, bird, human. Lupur guweko opego gi ki gu nongo pek i tim. I kare me Karama, gadigadi ma opong ki yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts onongo giwoto ki i wi godi me cito i boma. Ada, gin onwongo ki wango gi ki mac ma lyel. "Ki waco ni i kabedo mogo, lupur ginongo cente madwong ki i cato nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts ma loyo jami mukene ma ki nongo ki i poto," owaco William L. Bray, ladit mukwongo me gang kwan ma Maynard ki Powell gu tiyo iye lacen. Ki coyo i mwaka 1915. En obedo yat pa dano, ma pol ne dongo i tim.
Dok bene miyo jami mapol makato cam keken. Yat ma ki lwongo ni Chestnut twero dongo nio wa fut 120, ki fut 50 mukwongo pe ki balo ki jang yat onyo dul kom. Man aye lek pa lupur. Kadi bed ni pe obedo yat ma mwonya loyo nyo ma tek loyo, ento dongo oyotoyot adada, tutwalle ka odok cen i nge ngolo dok pe to woko. Kit ma tek pa yoo me gadigadi ki yat me cim okato kit ma nen kwede, Chestnut okonyo me gero America ma odongo maber. Odi alip mapol, odi ki kanica ma ki yubu ki yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts pud gicung; laco buk mo i mwaka 1915 owaco ni man aye yadi ma ki turo loyo i lobo Amerika.
I pol pa tung kumalo-yadi ni ya ki i Mississippi nio wa i Maine, ki i dog nam me Atlantic nio wa i dog kulu Mississippi-yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts bene tye i kin gii. Ento i Appalachians, onwongo obedo yat madit. Yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts bilion mapol gibedo i kom godi magi.
Ber ni Fusarium wilt okwongo nen i New York, ma en aye doggola ma dano mapol me Amerika gi donyo iye. I mwaka 1904, two mo ma pe ngeyo ma kinongo i kom yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma tye ka rweny woko i Bronx Zoo. Lutim kwed gunongo oyot ni kwidi ma okelo two ma ki lwongo ni bacterial blight (ma lacen ki lwongo ni Cryphonectria parasitica) oo i kom yadi ma ki kelo ki i Japan i acaki me mwaka 1876. (Pol kare tye kare ma okato i kin kelo kodi ki nongo peko ma nen.)
Cokcok dano i lobe mapol gu waco ni yadi tye ka too. I mwaka 1906, William A. Murrill, ladiro i kom jami ma kwo i New York Botanical Garden, ocoyo pwony mukwongo i kom two man. Muriel owaco ni kwidi eni kelo two ma nen calo yellowish-brown i kom yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut, ma weko yat ni bedo maleng. Ka jami ma konyo kom ki pii dong pe twero mol malo ki piny i dul kom ma tye i te yat, jami weny ma tye malo i kom yat ni obi too.
Jo mukene pe gitwero tamo-nyo pe gimito ni jo mukene gutam-yat mo ma rweny woko ki i tim. I mwaka 1911, Sober Paragon Chestnut Farm, ma obedo kampuni ma gwoko lutino matino i Pennsylvania, onongo gitamo ni two man obedo “makato lworo keken.” Bedo pa lucoc lok angeya ma pe ki twero pi kare malac. Ka gwoko leyi ni ki umu i mwaka 1913. Mwaki aryo mukato angec, Pennsylvania olwongo komiti ma kwako two ma ki lwongo ni chestnut, ma kimiyo twero me tic ki US$275,000 (wel cente madwong i kare meno), ki gu tito ni ki miiyo twero me lweny i kom two man, medo ki twero me balo yadi ma tye i ngom pa dano. Ludiro ma kwano two gi waco ni omyero ki kwany yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma tye mairo manok ki kama two ni tye iye me kelo adwogi me gengo mac. Ento odok ni kwidi ni twero ngwec i kom yadi ma pe ki two, ki jami ma ki lwongo ni spores ne nongo two ki yamo, winyi, jami makwo ki dano. Yub ni ki weko woko.
I mwaka 1940, cokcok yat madongo ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts onongo pe ki two. I kare-ni, wel cente ma romo bilion mapol dong kikwanyo woko. Kit ma yat ma ki lwongo ni fusarium wilt pe twero kwo i ngom, yat chestnut tye ka medde ki dongo, ki ma romo 400 million gi pud tye i tim. Ento, Fusarium wilt onongo ka gwoko pii i yat ma ki lwongo ni oak ma en bedo iye labongo balo kwo ne. Cake kunnu, oyoto nyaa i kom nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut manyen ki dwoko gi piny, pol kare kare malac ma peya gu oo i kare me dongo.
Lutic ma gi tiyo ki bawo gunongo yoo mukene: oak, pine, walnut, ki ash. Yub me del kom, tic mukene ma pire tek ma jenge i kom yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnut, oloko tic ki jami ma ki yubu me yubu del kom. Pi lupur mapol ma lucan, pe tye gin mo ma ki twero loko: pe tye yat mukene ma miiyo bot lupur ki lee gi calories ki protein ma nono, ma genne ki madwong. Two ma ki lwongo ni Chestnut blight ki twero waco ni tyeko tic pa dano me Appalachians me pur ma gi gwoko kwo gi, ma miyo dano ma i kabedo meno bedo ki tam ma nen: cito i ka golo coal onyo cito ka mabor. Lacoc me tekwaro ma nyinge Donald Davis ocoyo i mwaka 2005 ni: “Pi to pa nyig yat ma kilwongo ni chestnuts, lobo ducu dong oto woko, ma oweko kikwanyo kit me kwo ma onongo tye i godi me Appalachian pi mwaki makato miya angwen kulu.”
Powell odongo ka mabor ki Appalachians ki chestnuts. Wonne otiyo i mony ma ki lwongo ni Air Force ki ocito bot jo me ode: Indiana, Florida, Germany, ki tung kumalo me Maryland. Kadi bed ni en obedo pi kare malac i New York, lok ma en oloko obedo ki lok ada pa Midwest ki apokapoka ma nen maber pa South. Kit mere ma yot ki kit me ruko bongi ma yot gi konyo ngat acel acel, ma tye ki jin ma nen calo tye ki bongo ma nen calo pe gik. Lok ma en maro loyo aye "wow".
Powell tye ki yub me doko daktar pa lee nio ka lapwony me genetics ocikke me nongo gen me pur manyen, ma rwate ki jami ma ki loko gene ma twero kelo jami ma twero gengo kwidi ki two. “Atamo ni, wow, pe ber me yubo jami ma twero gwoko kom ki i kom jami ma kelo peko, dok pe myero i kir yat mo keken i komgi?” Powell owaco. "Eyo, lobo mukene pe lubo tam acel-lu."
I kare ma Powell oo i gang kwan me Utah State University i mwaka 1983, en onongo pe paro. Ento, en odonyo i ot yat pa ludiro ma kwano kom dano, ki en onwongo tye ka tic i kom kwidi ma twero balo kwidi ma ki lwongo ni blight fungus. Temo gi me tic ki kwidi ni pi owoto maber: pi onya ki i kom yat acel acel kene, ki dong omyera ki yub ne pi kit kwidi mapol. Kadi bed kumeno, Powell obedo ki miti i kom lok i kom yat madit ma opoto piny ki omiyo lagam me cayan pi bal ma dano otimo. En owaco ni: "Pi kit ma ki gwoko kwede jami wa ma tye ka wot i wilobo, wa kelo two ma pe wa tamo." "Atamo ni: Wow, man ber. Tye kare me dwoko ne cen."
Powell onwongo pe obedo ngat mukwongo me temo kwanyo rweny. Iyonge ma onongo nen ni yadi ma ki lwongo ni American chestnuts onongo obi rweny woko, USDA otemo pito yadi ma ki lwongo ni Chinese chestnut, ma obedo larem ma twero juku two, me niang ka yadi man twero loko yadi ma ki lwongo ni American chestnuts. Ento, nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts dongo woko, ki gi nen calo yadi ma nyak nyige ma loyo yadi ma nyak nyige. Onwongo gi tye ma nok i kin yadi ma ki lwongo ni oak ki yadi mukene madongo me Amerika. Dongo gi ki juku, onyo gi too woko. Lucayan bene gutemo pito nyig yat ma kilwongo ni chestnuts ki i lobo Amerika ki China kacel, kun gigeno ni gibinywalo yat ma tye ki kit mabeco pa gin aryo-ni ducu. Tute pa gamente-ni opoto woko dok kiweko woko.
Powell otum ki tic i State University of New York School of Environmental Science and Forestry, kan ma en orwatte ki Chuck Maynard, ngat ma ngeyo lok kom jami ma kwako kodi ma opito yadi i ot yat. Mwaki manok mukato angec, ludiro i kom jami ma kwo gu yubu gin ma ki loko i kom yadi-ki medo iye gin ma miyo teko me lweny i kom yat ma ki lwongo ni taba pi nyutu jami ma ki tiyo kwede ma ka tic kwede me cato wil. Maynard (Maynard) oyabo tic ki diro manyen, kun nongo tye ka yenyo diro ma tiyo ma rwate kwede. I kare meno, Darling onongo tye ki kodi mogo ki peko: yubu yat ma ki lwongo ni American chestnuts.
I mwaka alip mapol me dongo yadi macon, lupur (ki ludiro i kare ni) gu poko kodi ma tye ki kit ma gi miito. I ngeye, gin ma ki lwongo ni genes ni gi rubu kacel, ki dano gi yero gin ma ki rubu maber pi nyig yen ma dit, ma mit onyo ma gengo two. Pol kare, tero kare mapol me yubu gin moni. Kit me timo man tye mot ki bene kelo akalakala. Darling obedo ka tamo ka yoo man obi kelo yat maber calo kit ma en tye kwede i tim. En owaco bota ni: “Atamo ni watwero timo maber loyo.”
Yub me loko jami ma kwako kom dano nyutu ni myero kigwok jami mapol: kadi bed ni jami ma kwako kom dano oa ki i kom gin ma pe rwate, kitwero yero pi tic mo ki keto i kom gin makwo mukene. (Gin makwo ma tye ki gene ma aa ki i dul ler ma pat pat ki "loko gene gi." Cokcok ni, ludiro me cayan gu yubu yoo me loko genome pa ler ma ki mito.) Diro eni miyo tic maber ki oyotoyot. Powell tamo ni man nen calo ber pi yadi ma ki lwongo ni American chestnuts, ma en olwongo ni "yadi ma nen maber"-ma tek, mabor, ki tye ki cam madwong, ma mito ni ki lok iye maber: gengo two ma aa ki i kom kwidi two.
Ayee. En owaco ni: "Myero wabed ki ludiro i tic wa." "Ki i gedo me oo i gedo man obedo gin ma tiime piire kene."
Powell ki Maynard gi tamo ni romo tero mwaka apar me nongo gin ma miyo teko me kom, yubu diro me medo gi i kom gin ma ki lwongo ni chestnut genome, ki dong dongo gi. "Wan wa tye ka tamo kekene," Powell owaco. "Pe tye ngat mo ma tye ki jami ma miyo teko me lweny i kom kwidi. Wan wa cako ki kamu kene."
Darling openyo kony ki bot American Chestnut Foundation, dul ma pe kelo lim ma ki cako i acaki me mwaka 1980s. Latela ne owace ni en orwenyo woko. Gitye ka keto cwiny gi i kom jami ma pat pat ki gi tye ka neno kit ma ki yubu kwede jami ma kwo, ma okelo jemo ki bot dano ma gi gwoko kwo pa dano. Pi meno, Darling oyabo dul ne ma pe kelo lim me culu pi tic me loko jami ma kwako kom dano. Powell owaco ni dul ni ocoyo cente mukwongo bot Maynard ki Powell pi $30,000. (I mwaka 1990, dul ma loyo lobo ni oloko ki oye dul pa Darling ma mito poko kin dano calo dul ne mukwongo, ento lumemba mogo onongo pud gi tye ki akalakala onyo gi kwero lok ma mako jami ma ki lwongo ni genetic engineering.)
Maynard ki Powell gitye ka tic. Cut cut, kare ma ki byeko ni pe twero time. Peko mukwongo tye me nongo kit me pito nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts i ot yat. Maynard otemo rubu pot yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ki gin ma miyo kom dano dongo i gin ma ki lwongo ni petri dish, yoo ma ki tiyo kwede me pito yat ma ki lwongo ni poplars. Odoko ni man pe twere. Yat manyen pe obi dongo lwite ki nyige ki i kom cell ma pat pat. Maynard owaco ni: "An aye latela me wilobo i neko yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnut." Lakwan mo i University of Georgia, Scott Merkle (Scott Merkle) opwonyo Maynard kit me aa ki i nywaro nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni Plant chestnuts i kare me dongo.
Nongo gene ma opore-tic pa Powell- bene onyutu ni obedo gin matek. En otero mwaki mapol me yenyo gin ma gengo kwidi ma jenge i kom gene pa ogwal, ento oweko yat ni pien onongo tye ki lworo ni lwak romo kwero yadi ma tye ki ogwal. En bene oyenyo gin ma gengo kwidi two i kom yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts, ento onongo ni gwoko yat ni kwako gene mapol (gin onongo ni romo abicel). I ngeye, i mwaka 1997, latic lawota mo odwogo ki i cokke me kwan me cayan ki ocoyo lok ma ki coyo ki kit ma ki nyutu kwede. Powell ocoyo wi lok ma ki lwongo ni "Nyutu pa oxalate oxidase i kom yadi ma ki loko gii miyo teko i kom oxalate ki oxalate-producing fungi". Ki i kom kwedo kwidi ne, Powell ongeyo ni kwidi ma ki lwongo ni wilt fungi gi cwalo oxalic acid me neko yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut bark ki miyo bedo yot me acama. Powell oniang ni ka nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut twero yubu oxalate oxidase (gin ma ki lwongo ni protein ma twero turo oxalate), ki en twero gwoke kene. En owaco ni: "Man aye obedo kare me Eureka na."
Odok ni yadi mapol tye ki gin ma miyo gi twero yubu oxalate oxidase. Ki bot lakwan ma omiyo lok ni, Powell onongo kodi ma pat pat. Latin kwan ma otum ki rwom ma malo Linda Polin McGuigan oyubu diro me "gene gun" me keto gene i kom latin ma ki lwongo ni chestnut embryos, ki gen ni ki twero keto ne i DNA pa embryo ni. Gin ma ki lwongo ni gene ni obedo i ic pa latin pi kare manok, ento lacen orweny woko. Dul pa lutim kwed ni guweko yoo man ki gu loko tic ki kwidi ma con oyubu yoo me kwanyo DNA pa jami makwo mukene ki keto gene gi. I ginacweya, jami ma kwo matino tino gi medo gene ma diiyo kom dano me yubu cam ma ki nongo ki i kom kwidi. Ludiro ma kwano kom dano gu donyo i kom kwidi ni wek en oket gene mo kiken ma lucayan ni miito. McGuigan onongo kero me medo gin ma ki lwongo ni wheat genes ki marker proteins i kom nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut. Ka ki keto gin ma ki lwongo ni protein ni i te microscope, protein ni obi miyo mac ma ryeny, ma nyutu ni ki keto ne maber. (Dul ni oyot ojuko tic ki jami ma ki lwongo ni marker proteins-pe tye ngat mo ma onongo mito yat ma twero ryeny.) Maynard olwongo yoo ni "gin maber loyo i wilobo."
I kare ma okato, Maynard ki Powell gugero ka yubu jami ma ki lwongo ni chestnut, ma dong odongo i rwom mapol me ot ma ki yubu ki matafali ki got ma ki yubu i mwaka 1960, kacel ki kabedo manyen ma ki lwongo ni "Biotech Accelerator". Kit me timo ne mukwongo kwako yero nyig ma dongo ki i kom cell ma rom (pol pa nyig ma ki yubu i ot yat pe tiimo man, ki dong pi konyo me yubu clone) ki keto gene me nyig cam. Gin ma ki lwongo ni embryonic cells, ma calo agar, obedo gin ma calo pudding ma ki kwanyo ki i kom lum. Me loko latin ma tye i ic-ci me doko yat, lucayan gumedo iye jami ma weko latin dongo. Jami mapol ma ki yubu ki jami ma ki lwongo ni cube ki yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma tiino ma pe ki lwit twero bedo i kom gin ma ki keto iye jami i te tara ma ryeny matek. I agikkine, lucayan guketo yat ma weko yat dongo, gupito yadi macon-ni i agulu ma opong ki ngom, ci guketogi i ot ma kigwoko iye lyeto. Labongo ur, yadi ma tye i ot yat ni tye marac woko. Pi meno, lutim kwed ni gu keto gi kacel ki yadi me tim me kelo jami ma tek ento pud gi tek pi temo i poto.
I kare me cwir aryo mukato angec, Hannah Pilkey, latin kwan ma tye ka kwan i Powell's lab, onyuta kit me timo man. En opito kwidi ma kelo kwidi two jonyo i gin ma ki lwongo ni plastic petri dish. I kit ma ki umu ni, kwidi ma nen maber ki nen maber. Tek me tamo ni en aye okelo to ki rwenyo jami mapol.
ler ma ki lwongo ni giraffe ma tye i ngom ni guro piny, oketo lanyut i kom dul yat matidi ma tye ki milimita abic, otimo dul adek ma opore ki gin ma ki lwongo ni scalpel, ki oketo buru i kom bur ni. En oumo gi ki gin ma ki lwongo ni plastic film. En owaco ni: “Obedo calo bongo ma kiketo i cing dano.” Kit ma man obedo yat ma pe twero juku two, en tamo ni two ma ki lwongo ni orange ni obi nya oyotoyot ki kama ki keto iye yat ni ki lacen obi guro yat ma tiino ni. En onyuta yadi mogo ma tye ki jami ma ki lwongo ni wheat genes ma en onongo otiiyo kwede con. Two ni tye i kom ma ki turo, ma calo dog ma nen calo orange ma cok ki dog matidi ni.
I mwaka 2013, Maynard ki Powell gu tito ni gu nongo adwogi maber i kom kwan ma ki lwongo ni Transgenic Research: mwaka 109 inge nongo two ma ki lwongo ni American chestnut disease, gu yubu yadi ma nen calo gi gwoke kengi, kadi bed ni ki neko gi ki kwidi mapol. Me miyo deyo bot ngat ma gu miiyo kony mukwongo ki ma lamar loyo, en oketo cente ma romo $250,000, ki lutim kwed gu bedo ka keto nying yadi ki nyinge. Man ki lwongo ni Darling 58.
Cokke me mwaka ki mwaka pa New York Chapter me American Chestnut Foundation obedo i otel mo matidi i dog New Paltz i ceng abicel ma kot onongo tye ka cwer i dwe me apar mwaka 2018. Dano ma romo 50 gucokke kacel. Rwom man onwongo tye ka rwate me lok ma mako jami ma tye i lobo ki bene onwongo tye ka rwate me nywako lok. I nge ot me rwate matidi, lumemba ni gupoko kicar me Ziploc ma opong ki nyig yen. Cokke man obedo tyen mukwongo i mwaki 28 ma Darling nyo Maynard pe gubedo iye. Peko me yot kom oweko gin aryo ni pe gu bedo cen. "Wabedo ka timo man pi kare malac, ki mwaka ki mwaka wabedo ling pi jo muto," Allen Nichols, ladit wi gurup ni, owaco bota. Kadi bed kumeno, cwiny dano pwod tye maber: yat ma ki loko ni okato mwaka mapol me temo gwok ki tic maber.
Dano ma i dul ni gu miyo ngec matut i kom kit ma yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma bedo i New York State tye kwede. Pilkey ki lutino kwan mukene ma gu tyeko kwan gu nyutu kit me coko ki gwoko pot yat, kit me pito nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts i te mac ma i ot, ki kit me pongo ngom ki kwidi two jonyo me medo kwo pa yadi. Dano ma gi tye ki cashew chested, ma pol gi gi dongo yadi gi, gupenyo lapeny bot ludiro ma mwaka gi tiino.
Bowell oketo i ngom, kun oruko gin ma nen calo obedo yunifom ma pe ki ngeyo pi dul man: koti ma tye ki ngut ma ki keto i jin. Tam ne acel-tic me mwaka pyera dek ma ki yubu i kom yub pa Herb Darling me nongo nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts-pe pol i kin lupwonye me cayan, ma pol kare gi timo kwed i mwaka abic me miiyo cente, ki dong adwogi maber ni ki miyo bot dano mukene me cato wil. Don Leopold, latic lawota ma i Powell’s Environmental Science and Forestry Department owaco bota ni: “En keto cwinye i kom jami dok keto cwinye i tic.” "En keto katen. Pe ki balo tam ne ki jami mukene mapol. I kare ma kwan ni otum, lutela me State University of New York (SUNY) gu lok kwede ki gupenyo pi twero me yat ne wek university ni onong kony ki iye, ento Powell okwero. En owaco ni yadi ma ki loko i kom yadi ni calo chestnuts macon ki dano ma gi tiyo i Powell tye i ot man.
Ento en ociko gi ni: I nge loyo peko mapol, yadi ma ki loko gii twero bedo ki peko madit loyo: gamente me Amerika. Cabit manok mukato angec, Powell ocwalo karatac ma romo pot karatac 3,000 bot jang gang kal me pur me Amerika ma neno yot kom pa ler ki yadi, ma tye ki twero me yer yadi ma ki loko gii. Man cako yub me yer pa jang gang kal: neno waraga ma ki penyo ni, peny tam pa lwak, yubu lok ma mako adwogi marac ma bino pi kwo pa dano, peny tam pa lwak odoco ki moko tam. Tic man twero tero mwaki mapol. Ka pe ki moko tam, yub ni twero juku. (Kare me miyo tam pa lwak mukwongo pwod pe oyabe.)
Lutim kwed ni gu tye ka cwalo waraga mukene bot Food and Drug Administration wek gubed ki kare me neno ber pa cam pa nyig cam ma ki loko gii, ki Environmental Protection Agency obi neno adwogi pa yat ni ite cik me Federal Pesticides, ma mite pi yadi ma ki loko gii weny. jami makwo. "Man tek loyo kwan me cayan!" ngat mo i kin lwak owaco.
"Ee." Powell oyee. "Lok me cayan tye ma mit. Cwero cwiny dano." (En lacen owaco ira ni: "Gwok pa dul adek ma pat pat obedo gin ma okato kare. En neko jami manyen ma ki yubu me gwoko kwo pa dano.")
Me nyutu ni yat gi tye maber, dul pa Powell otimo temo mapol. Gi miyo oxalate oxidase bot pollen pa kic. Gipimo dongo pa jami ma konyo i ngom. Gi weko pot yat ni i pii ki gu kwedo adwogi ne i kom t. Pe ki neno adwogi marac mo keken i kwan mo keken-i adaa, adaa, tic pa cam ma ki loko ki gene ber loyo pot yat mogo ma ki loko ku. Ludiro i kom jami ma kwo gu cwalo nyig yen ni i Oak Ridge National Laboratory ki ot yat mukene i Tennessee me temo, ki pe gunongo apokapoka mo ki nyig yen ma ki nongo ki i yadi ma pe ki loko.
Adwogi ma kit meno twero kweyo cwiny lutela. Gin pe gubi kweyo cwiny dano ma gicwako GMOs. John Dougherty, ladiro ma dong oweko tic ki i Monsanto, omiyo kony bot Powell me nono. En olwongo lumone magi ni "lumone." Pi mwaki mapol, dul ma gwoko kwo pa dano gu bedo ka ciko ni loko gene i kin ler ma gi rwate mabor romo kelo adwogi ma pe ki tamo, ma calo yubu "poto ma dit" ma kato yadi ma ki pito, onyo kelo gene ma pat ma twero kelo alokaloka marac i DNA pa ler ni. Gin bene gi tye ki lworo ni kampuni tiyo ki jami ma ki yubu me nongo twero me tic ki jami makwo.
I kare ni, Powell owaco ni en pe onongo cente mo ki bot dano ma gi tiyo tic meno, ki en omoko ni miiyo cente bot ot yat ni "pe ki rwate." Ento, Brenda Jo McManama, ngat ma oyubu dul ma ki lwongo ni "Indigenous Environmental Network", onyutu gicikke i mwaka 2010 ma Monsanto omiyo bot Chestnut Foundation ki dul ma en tiyo kwede i New York. (Powell owaco ni kony pa kampuni, medo ki Monsanto, tye ma pe okato 4% me wel cente ma en tiyo kwede.) McManama tamo ni Monsanto (ma ki wilo ki Bayer i mwaka 2018) tye ka yenyo me nongo twero me tic ki yat ni kun miiyo kony bot gin ma nen calo tye gin ma ki bi loko i anyim. Yub ma pe paro pire kene. "Monsan tye gin marac," en owaco labongo akalakala mo.
Powell owaco ni twero me tic ki yat i mwaka 2010 ni otum, ki i tito lok ma mako yat ne i buk me cayan, en omoko ni yat ni pe kitwero miyo twero me tic kwede. Ento en oniang ni man pe bijwayo par ducu. En owaco ni, "angeyo ngat mo romo waco ni in itye gin ma ki lwongo ni bait pa Monsanto." "Ngo ma itwero timone? Pe tye gin mo ma itwero timone."
Mwaki ma romo abic mukato angec, lutela me American Chestnut Foundation gumoko ni pe gitwero cobo yubgi ki keto nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni hybridization keken, pi meno guye yub pa Powell me loko kit ma kom dano tye kwede. Tam man okelo apokapoka mogo. I dwe me Adek mwaka 2019, ladit wi dul pa Massachusetts-Rhode Island Chapter me Foundation, Lois Breault-Melican, oweko tic, kun waco ni Global Justice Ecology Project (Global Justice Project), dul ma lweny i kom gene ma tye i Buffalo. Justice Ecology Project) lok; cware Denis Melican bene oweko dul ni. Dennis owaco ira ni luot ni onongo gi tye ki lworo ni Powell's chestnuts twero bedo "Trojan horse", ma oyabo yoo pi yadi mukene me cato wil me bedo ki teko madwong kun kitiyo ki genetic engineering.
Susan Offutt, ngat ma ngeyo lok kom pur, tiyo calo latela me National Academy of Sciences, Engineering and Medicine Committee, ma otimo kwed i kom jami ma kwo i yadi i mwaka 2018. En owaco ni yub pa gamente me keto cik i kom lok ma mako kwo pa jami makwo, ki en pe oketo tam i kom peko ma mako kwo pa dano, calo ma lutim aranyi ma gilwenyo i kom two ma ki lwongo ni GMO. "Ngo ma tye gin ma pire tek i tim?" en openyo, ma calo labol pa peko, yub ni pi otiime. "Tika yadi tye ki ber gi? Tika watye ki twero me keto man i tam ka wa tye ka moko tam me kony?"
Pol pa ludiro ma aloko kwed gi gi tye ki tyen lok manok me bedo ki lworo i kom yadi pa Powell, pien yadi ni obalo jami mapol: turo yadi, kwanyo jami ma i ngom, dongo, ki wel kwidi ki two mapol ma balo yadi. I kin gi, yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut wilt ki nyutu ni obedo yub me yabo. "Wan kare weny wa tye ka kelo jami makwo manyen ma otum," Gary Lovett owaco, ngat ma ngeyo lok kom yadi i Cary Ecosystem Institute i Millbrook, New York. "Adwogi pa nyig cam ma ki loko i kom gi nok tutwal."
Donald Waller, ngat ma ngeyo lok kom yadi ma cok cok ni oweko tic ki i University of Wisconsin-Madison, ocito anyim. En owaco bota ni: "I tungcel, aketo rwom manok i kin ariya ki mot. Ki tungcel, abedo ka ngwec ki wiya pi ariya." Yat ma ki loko ni twero kelo peko i tim. Me apoka, "pot karatac ma tye piny i kom mot ni opong ki ink." En owaco ni yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma kwero two ni obi loyo tim man ma ki lwenyo iye ni. Dano mito gen. Dano mito lanyut. ”
Powell maro bedo mot, ento jo ma pe ye lok ma mako jami ma ki yubu ki dano twero bwolo cwinye. En owaco ni: “Gin pe giniang bota.” "Pe gi jenge i kom cayan." Ka ludiro yubu motoka maber onyo cim cing, ngat mo pe koko, ki en mito ngeyo ngo marac ki yadi ma ki yubu maber. "Man obedo gin ma twero konyo," Powell owaco. "Pingo iwaco ni pe watwero tic ki gin tic man? Watwero tic ki screwdriver ma ki lwongo ni Phillips, ento pe ki screwdriver ma rwate, ki kit meno bene?"
I acaki me dwe me apar mwaka 2018, acito kacel ki Powell i kabedo ma ki lwongo ni mild field station tung kumalo me Syracuse. En onongo tye ki gen ni anyim pa dul yat ma ki lwongo ni American chestnut obi dongo. Kabedo ni cok bedo nono, ki en tye i kin kabedo manok ma ki ye ni yadi odong iye. Poto mabor ma ki lwongo ni pine ki larch, ma oa ki i yub me kwedo ngec ma ki weko pi kare malac, gi loko tung kumalo, mabor ki yamo ma tye ka kodo, ma miyo kabedo ni nen calo lworo.
Lakwed lok Andrew Newhouse i ot yat pa Powell dong tye ka tic i kom yat acel maber pi ludiro, yat ma ki lwongo ni wild chestnut ma aa ki i tung kumalo me Virginia. Yat ni tye fut 25 mabor ki dongo i poto ma ki yubu maber ma ki guro ki cel mabor fut 10. Ki tweyo kicaa me kwan i agiki me jang yat mogo. Newhouse otiito ni kicar ma i iye ni onongo tye i Darling 58 pollen ma ludiro ikom jami ma kwo gupenyo pire i dwe me abicel, kun kicar ma ki yubu ki cuma ma woko ni gwoko ler ma ki lwongo ni squirrels ki i dongo buru. Yub ni weng tye ite neno pa jang gang kal me lobo Amerika; ma peya ki kwanyo cik, pollen onyo nyig yen ma aa ki i kom yadi ma ki medo iye genes i cel onyo i ot yat pa lakwan omyera ki poko ne.
Newhouse otiyo ki gin ma ki lwongo ni retractable pruning shears i kom jang yat ni. Ki tweyo ki tol, pala ni otur ki kicar ni opoto piny. Newhouse oyot ocito i jang gang mukene ma ki keto iye ki dok otimo gin ni. Powell okwanyo kicar ma opoto piny ni ki oketo gi i kicar ma dit ma ki yubu ki plastik, ma calo tic ki jami ma kelo peko i kom dano.
Iyonge dwogo i ot yat, Newhouse ki Hannah Pilkey gu kwanyo gin ma tye i kicar ni ki oyot gu kwanyo nyig yen macol ki i kom yat ma ryangi ne rom ki pot yat ni. Gi gwoke me weko jami ma ki lwongo ni chestnut pe donyo i del kom, ma obedo gin ma kelo peko i tic me kwedo jami ma ki lwongo ni chestnut. I kare mukato angec, onongo gi maro nyig cam ma ki loko gii. I kare ni, gin dong gubedo ki jami mapol: ma kato 1,000. "Wan weng watye ka timo myel ma yomo yic," Pirkey owaco.
I dyewor meno, Powell otero nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts ni i opici pa Neil Patterson i lobby. Onwongo obedo nino pa dano ma gibedo i lobo meno (nino pa Columbus), ki Patterson, lakony latela pa ESF's Center for Indigenous Peoples and the Environment, onwongo pud odwogo ki i dul me angwen me gang kwan, kama en otelo iye nyutu cam pa dano ma gibedo i lobo meno. Lutinone aryo ki latin ominne gitye ka tuko ki kompiuta i opici. Dano weng gu kwanyo ki gu camo nyig yen ni. "Gitye ma kome lit," Powell owaco ki arem cwiny.
Mic pa Powell tye pi tic mapol. En tye ka poko nyig, ki gen me tic ki dul pa Patterson me pito nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts i kabedo manyen, kama gi twero nongo iye nyig yat ma ki loko i kom gi i mwaka manok. En bene onywako i lok ma mako lok pa dano.
I kare ma Patterson onongo tic ki ESF i mwaka 2014, en oniang ni Powell onongo tye ka temo ki yadi ma ki loko gii, ma onongo tye mairo manok ki i Onondaga Nation Resident Territory. Gin ma lacen ni tye i tim mairo manok tung kumalo me Syracuse. Patterson oniang ni ka yub ni otiime maber, gin ma gengo two obi donyo i ngom ki obi rwate ki yadi ma odong kunnu, ma obi loko tim ma pire tek pi kit pa Onodaga. En bene owinyo lok ma tye ka weko lulweny, medo ki mogo ma aa ki i kin gang, me kwero jami makwo ma ki loko gii i kabedo mukene. Me labolle, i mwaka 2015, kaka pa Yurok ogengo gwoko jami ma ki lwongo ni GMO i Northern California pien onongo gi tye ki lworo i kom jami ma ki pito ki rec ma ki lwongo ni salmon.
Patterson owacca ni, “Aniang ni man otimme i komwa kany; I cokke pa Environmental Protection Agency me mwaka 2015 ma ESF otimo, Powell omiyo lok ma kiyubu maber bot jo ma gibedo i New York. I nge pwonye, ​​Patterson wiye opo ni lutela mapol guwaco ni: “Myero wapur yadi!” Mitigi oyomo cwiny Patterson. En owaco ni: “Onongo pe atamo.”
Ento, lok ma ki loko lacen onyutu ni dano manok keken aye gi po i kom tic ma yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut otimo i tekwaro gi macon. Kwedo ngec pa Patterson owaco bote ni i kare ma lweny i kin dano ki balo kwo pa ler onongo tye ka time i kare acel, gamente me Amerika onongo tye ka keto i tic yub me kwanyo dano ki i kin dano, ki two ma opoto ni onongo dong oo. Ma calo jami mukene mapol, tekwaro pa yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut i kabedo ni orweny woko. Patterson bene onongo ni tam ma dano tye kwede i kom kit me yubo jami ma tye i kom dano pat pat adada. Layub yat ma ki lwongo ni Onoda ma ki lwongo ni Alfie Jacques tye ki miti me yubu yat ki bao ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ki en miiyo kony bot yub man. Dano mogo tamo ni peko ni dit tutwal ki dong gi kwero yadi.
Patterson niang lok aryo eni. Cokcok-ki en owaco bota ni: “Obedo calo cim cing ki latinna.” En owaco ni latin ne tye ka dwogo gang ki i gang kwan pi two korona. "I nino mo acel acito woko; me gwoko gi i lok, gin tye ka pwonyo. I nino ma lubo, wek wakwany jami eni woko." Ento mwaka mapol me lok ki Powell oweko lworo ne odoko goro. Cokcok mukato angec, en opwonyo ni wel yat ma ki lwongo ni Darling trees 58 pe obi bedo ki gene ma ki kelo, ma nyutu ni yat ma ki lwongo ni wild chestnuts ni obi medde ki dongo i tim. Patterson owaco ni man okwanyo peko mo madit.
I kare me limo wa i dwe me apar, en owaco ira ni tyen lok ma oweko en pi twero miiyo kony bot yub me GM ni pien en onongo pe ngeyo ka Powell paro pi dano ma tye ka lok ki yat ni onyo yat ni. "Angeyo ngo ma tye pi en ku," Patterson owaco, kun diyo kore. En owaco ni ka wat ma tye i kin dano ki yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut twero dwogo cen, en aye mitte me nongo yat man.
Me agiki, en owaco ni etye ka yube me tic ki nyig cam ma Powell omiye me yubu nyig cam ma ki lwongo ni chestnut pudding ki moo. En obi kelo dek eni i kin piny me Onondaga ki lwongo dano me dwogo cen i kom dek macon ni. En owaco ni: “Ageno ni, bedo calo moto laremi macon.Myero idony i bac ki ka ma icung iye tyen mukato angec.”
Powell onongo mic me $3.2 million ki bot Templeton World Charity Foundation i dwe me acel, ma obi miyo kare bot Powell me mede anyim ma en tye ka tic ki dul ma kwako cik ki medo rwom me kwan ne ki i kom genetics me oo i lok adaa me yubu ngom. Ka gamente omiye gum, Powell ki ludiro ma aa ki i American Chestnut Foundation gubi cako ye ni odong. Yat ma ki lwongo ni Pollen ki genes ne mukene ki bi buru onyo ki bi buru i kom yadi mukene ma tye ka kuro, ki anyim pa chestnuts ma ki loko gene gi obi time labongo keto i kom kabedo ma ki temo iye. Ka ki tamo ni gene ni ki twero gwoko ne i poto ki i ot yat, man pe tye atir, ki obi nyaa i tim-man obedo gin ma lucayan gi miito ento jo ma jemo gi lworo.
Inge tye yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnut ma ki gonyo, in itwero wilo acel? Ada, Newhouse owaco, meno aye obedo yub. Lutim kwed ki penyo gi cabit ki cabit awene ma yadi tye iye.
I lobo ma Powell, Newhouse ki lutic luwote gibedo iye, yot me winyo ni lobo ducu tye ka kuro yatgi. Ento, wot ki mutoka mabor manok tung kumalo ki i poto ma ki timo kwed iye kun wok ki i dye boma me Syracuse poyo wiwa i kom kit ma alokaloka madit otimme kwede i kin piny ki kwo pa dano nicake ma yat ma ki lwongo ni American chestnuts orweny woko. Chestnut Heights Drive tye i boma matidi tung kumalo me Syracuse. En tye yoo ma dano bedo iye ma tye ki yoo ma lac, lum maleng, ki yadi ma tiino ma ki keto i dye ot. . Dul ma yubu bao ni pe miito ni ki dwoko yadi ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts ni. Yub me pur ma jenge i kom nyig yat ma ki lwongo ni chestnuts dong orweny woko. Pe tye ngat mo ma kwanyo nyig yen ma yom ki ma mit ki i kom ma tek tutwal. Pol pa dano romo bedo ni pe gi ngeyo ni pe tye gin mo ma orweny i tim.
Acung ki acamo cam me otyeno i nget nam Onondaga i te lum ma dit ma ki lwongo ni white ash. Yat ni onongo tye ki kwidi ma ryeny ma ryangi calo ler ma ki lwongo ni borers. Atwero neno bur ma kwidi ni oyubu i kom yat ni. Ocako rwenyo pot ne ki twero to ki poto piny i nge mwaka manok. Me bino kany ki gang na i Maryland, angweco ki motoka ma okato yadi mapol ma otoo, ki jang yat ma ki lwongo ni pitchfork ma tye ka dongo i nget gudu.
I Appalachia, kampuni ni okwanyo yadi ki i kabedo malac me Bitlahua me nongo coal piny. Cwiny lobo ma ki lwongo ni coal orwate ki cwiny lobo macon ma ki lwongo ni chestnut. Dul ma ki lwongo ni American Chestnut Foundation otiyo ki dul ma gupito yadi i kom got ma ki weko iye coal, ki yadi chestnut dong tye ka dongo i kom ngom ma romo alip mapol ma peko ni obalo. Yadi magi gubedo but yadi ma gicung i kom kwidi two jonyo, ento gi twero doko gin acel ki yadi manyen ma nino mo acel twero pyem ki yadi madongo macon.
I dwe me abic mukato, dwong pa yamo ma ki lwongo ni carbon dioxide i yamo oo 414.8 parts per million pi tyen mukwongo. Calo yadi mukene, pek pa yat ma ki lwongo ni American chestnuts ma pe ki keto i pii tye nucu pa carbon. Jami manok ma itwero pito i ngom twero kwanyo yamo ma ki lwongo ni carbon oyotoyot loyo yat ma tye ka dongo. Ki tam man, lok mo ma ki coyo i Wall Street Journal mwaka ma okato ni owaco ni, "Wek wabed ki poto mukene."